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2 The historical emergence and institutionalisation of psychological sub-disciplines It is sometimes said that psychology has a long past but a short history. Many basic psychological questions on how we experience and think about the world were debated with considerable sophistication in early Greece and Egypt, and many psychological concepts, including the concepts of memory, identity and emotion, have ancient precursors (Billig, 1987). The emergence of psychology as a modern institution is relatively recent, however, dating back to the later years of the nineteenth century. In many ways, psychology remains a young science whose core concerns, defining concepts and methodological frameworks are still emerging. Indeed, the very definition of psychology as a science – at least in the sense that disciplines such as physics, chemistry and biology are sciences – is far from settled (Brown and Stenner, 2009). Psychology has, of course, matured over the course of the past century. As this module richly illustrates, it has contributed to our understanding of an array of topics. One sign of this maturation is the emergence of a range of psychological sub-disciplines, designed to address particular kinds of practical or theoretical problems and shaped by both factors internal to the field and the broader contexts in which the discipline has evolved. The sub-discipline of social psychology, for example, originally emerged as a framework for understanding the relationship between the individual and the social – that is, where ‘you’ meets up with ‘the world’. In 1908, two books considered to be the first bearing the words ‘social psychology’ in their title were published. One was written by sociologist E.A. Ross (1908), the other by psychologist William McDougall (1908), and both focused on the rich possibilities of working at the intersection of the social and psychological. This focus was captured by the early assertion of George Mead (1934, p. 1) that: ‘... in the study of the experience of and behaviour of the individual organism or self in its dependence upon the social group to which it belongs we find a definition of the field of social psychology.’ Social psychology subsequently provided an orienting framework within which psychologists explored topics such as crowd behaviour, social conformity, social cohesion, group identity, attitude formation and intergroup conflict. While it is tempting to view the field’s emergence purely as a reflection of the preoccupations of psychologists themselves, it was also powerfully shaped by wider factors. For instance, social psychology, as an experimental and applied science, was able to establish itself just after the First World War with the rise of the factory assembly line and an interest in maximising industrial productivity. The Second World War and the subsequent Cold War between the United States of America (USA) and the Soviet Union made urgent certain kinds of social and political problems – for example, problems of racial and ethnic prejudice, of group morale during combat, and of the effects of political propaganda on the masses. Similarly, social psychology’s development was shaped by the value systems of the societies in which it took root. Most early social psychological research was conducted in Western liberal democracies, particularly in Europe and the USA, and this informed the kinds of values that came to permeate the field. Because they prioritised individualistic values, such as autonomy and personal freedom, social psychologists came to see the influence of the social group on the individual as dangerous and potentially corrupting (e.g. see Chapters 2 and 5 of this book), and they neglected the positive role of groups as agents of social change (e.g. see Chapter 3). There is not space here to elaborate the historical emergence of the other specialist areas of psychology on which this module focuses. Our aims are simpler. First, we want to note that all of these sub-disciplines emerged as the result of a complex combination of factors internal and external to the discipline; they are thus as much a product of wider social, political, historical and technological processes as they are a product of the free-floating ideas of psychologists themselves. For example, it is not irrelevant that cognitive psychology developed just as information processing was revolutionising understandings of computing, while the invention of fMRI technology has provided an important tool for the more recent developments in biological understandings. Second, we want to note how, once established, these sub-disciplines provided a powerful lens through which generations of psychologists came to view the project of formulating research questions, conducting research and generating theories. In this sense, they served both as traditions on which psychologists could build and as straitjackets that sometimes constrained innovation. Third, we want to note how sub-disciplines also became part of psychology as a professional and educational institution, shaping how the field is now taught, marketed, funded, accredited and practised across the world. Thus, this module covers a ‘syllabus’ of topics that is informed by guidelines laid down by the British Psychological Society (BPS) – the body that accredits psychology degree programmes in the United Kingdom but that is very similar to equivalent bodies in other geographical locations. This syllabus is designed to offer students balanced exposure to work across a set of core areas including social, cognitive, biological and developmental psychology. The next section will introduce the core characteristics – distinctive and overlapping – of these four areas of psychology. It does so by means of a concrete example, exploring some recent studies on the topic of empathy. To begin with, by way of orientation, you might want to consider Figure 1.1.

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